Robustness has long been recognized as an important parameter for evaluating game-theoretic results, but talk of ‘robustness’ generally remains vague. What we offer here is a graphic measure for a particular kind of robustness (‘matrix robustness’), using a three-dimensional display of the universe of 2 × 2 game theory. In such a measure specific games appear as specific volumes (Prisoner’s Dilemma, Stag Hunt, etc.), allowing a graphic image of the extent of particular game-theoretic effects in terms of those games. The (...) measure also allows for an easy comparison between different effects in terms of matrix robustness. Here we use the measure to compare the robustness of Tit for Tat’s well-known success in spatialized games (Axelrod, R. (1984). The evolution of cooperation . New York: Basic Books; Grim, P. et al. (1998). The philosophical computer: Exploratory essays in philosophical computer modeling . Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press) with the robustness of a recent game-theoretic model of the contact hypothesis regarding prejudice reduction (Grim et al. 2005. Public Affairs Quarterly, 19 , 95–125). (shrink)

We apply spatialized game theory and multi-agent computational modeling as philosophical tools: (1) for assessing the primary social psychological hypothesis regarding prejudice reduction, and (2) for pursuing a deeper understanding of the basic mechanisms of prejudice reduction.

Providing the most thorough coverage available in one volume, this comprehensive, broadly based collection offers a wide variety of selections in four major genres, and also includes a section on film. Each of the five sections contains a detailed critical introduction to each form, brief biographies of the authors, and a clear, concise editorial apparatus. Updated and revised throughout, the new Fourth Edition adds essays by Margaret Mead, Russell Baker, Joan Didion, Annie Dillard, and Alice Walker; fiction by Nathaniel Hawthorne, (...) Ursula K. LeGuin, Anton Chekov, James Joyce, Katherine Mansfield, F. Scott Fitzgerald, William Faulkner, Alice Walker, Louise Erdrich, Donald Barthelme, and James McPherson; poems by John Donne, Robert Browning, Walt Whitman, Edwin Arlington Robinson, e.e. cummings, Langston Hughes, W.H. Auden, Philip Levine, and Louise Gluck; and plays by August Wilson, Marsha Norman, Wendy Wasserstein, and Vaclav Havel. The chapter devoted to film examines the relation of film to literature and gives the complete screenplay for Citizen Kane plus close analysis of a scene from the film. With its innovative structure, comprehensive coverage, and insightful and stimulating presentation of all kinds of literature, this is an anthology readers will turn to again and again. (shrink)

Every year, the Vietnamese people reportedly burned about 50,000 tons of joss papers, which took the form of not only bank notes, but iPhones, cars, clothes, even housekeepers, in hope of pleasing the dead. The practice was mistakenly attributed to traditional Buddhist teachings but originated in fact from China, which most Vietnamese were not aware of. In other aspects of life, there were many similar examples of Vietnamese so ready and comfortable with adding new norms, values, and beliefs, even contradictory (...) ones, to their culture. This phenomenon, dubbed “cultural additivity”, prompted us to study the co-existence, interaction, and influences among core values and norms of the Three Teachings –Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism–as shown through Vietnamese folktales. By applying Bayesian logistic regression, we evaluated the possibility of whether the key message of a story was dominated by a religion (dependent variables), as affected by the appearance of values and anti-values pertaining to the Three Teachings in the story (independent variables). Our main findings included the existence of the cultural additivity of Confucian and Taoist values. More specifically, empirical results showed that the interaction or addition of the values of Taoism and Confucianism in folktales together helped predict whether the key message of a story was about Confucianism, β{VT ⋅ VC} = 0.86. Meanwhile, there was no such statistical tendency for Buddhism. The results lead to a number of important implications. First, this showed the dominance of Confucianism because the fact that Confucian and Taoist values appeared together in a story led to the story’s key message dominated by Confucianism. Thus, it presented the evidence of Confucian dominance and against liberal interpretations of the concept of the Common Roots of Three Religions (“tam giáo đồng nguyên”) as religious unification or unicity. Second, the concept of “cultural additivity” could help explain many interesting socio-cultural phenomena, namely the absence of religious intolerance and extremism in the Vietnamese society, outrageous cases of sophistry in education, the low productivity in creative endeavors like science and technology, the misleading branding strategy in business. We are aware that our results are only preliminary and more studies, both theoretical and empirical, must be carried out to give a full account of the explanatory reach of “cultural additivity”. (shrink)

Recent debates in psychopathy studies have articulated concerns about false-positives in assessment and research sampling. These are pressing concerns for research progress, since scientific quality depends on sample quality, that is, if we wish to study psychopathy we must be certain that the individuals we study are, in fact, psychopaths. Thus, if conventional assessment tools yield substantial false-positives, this would explain why central research is laden with discrepancies and nonreplicable findings. This paper draws on moral psychology in order to develop (...) tentative theory-driven exclusion criteria applicable in research sampling. Implementing standardized procedures to discriminate between research participants has the potential to yield more homogenous and discrete samples, a vital prerequisite for research progress in etiology, epidemiology, and treatment strategies. (shrink)

Questionable research practices are a well-recognized problem in psychology. Coding bias, or the tendency of review studies to disproportionately cite positive findings from original research, has received comparatively little attention. Coding bias is more likely to occur when original research, such as neuroimaging, includes large numbers of effects, and is most concerning in applied contexts. We evaluated coding bias in reviews of structural magnetic resonance imaging studies of PCL-R psychopathy. We used PRISMA guidelines to locate all relevant original sMRI studies (...) and reviews. The proportion of null-findings cited in reviews was significantly lower than those reported in original research, indicating coding bias. Coding bias was not affected by publication date or review design. Reviews recommending forensic applications—such as treatment amenability or reduced criminal responsibility—were no more accurate than purely theoretical reviews. Coding bias may have contributed to a perception that structural brain abnormalities in psychopaths are more consistent than they actually are, and by extension that sMRI findings are suitable for forensic application. We discuss possible sources for the pervasive coding bias we observed, and we provide recommendations to counteract this bias in review studies. Until coding bias is addressed, we argue that this literature should not inform conclusions about psychopaths' neurobiology, especially in forensic contexts. (shrink)

Building upon Nancy Cartwright's discussion of models in How the Laws of Physics Lie, this paper addresses solid state research in transition metal oxides. Historical analysis reveals that in this domain models function both as the culmination of phenomenology and the commencement of theoretical explanation. Those solid state chemists who concentrate on the description of phenomena pertinent to specific elements or compounds assess models according to different standards than those who seek explanation grounded in approximate applications of the Schroedinger (...) equation. Accurate accounts of scientific debate in this field must include both perspectives. (shrink)

Central to Sellars’ account of human cognition was a clear distinction, expressed in varying terminology in his different works, “between conceptual and nonconceptual representations.” Those who have come to be known as ‘left-wing Sellarsians’, such as Richard Rorty, Robert Brandom, and John McDowell, have tended to reject Sellars’ appeals to nonconceptual sensory representations. So-called ‘right-wing Sellarsians’ such as Ruth Millikan and Jay Rosenberg, on the other hand, have embraced and developed aspects of Sellars’ account, in particular the central underlying idea (...) that human perceptual cognition involves a certain naturalistic ‘mapping’ correspondence or structural ‘picturing’ isomorphism between internal mental representations and the layout and behavior of objects in the surrounding environment. Sellars, despite his defenses of nonconceptual representational content throughout his career, has with no small irony come to be cited as one of the “founding fathers of conceptualism.” While recognizing the strong conceptualist elements in Sellars’ Kantian account of perceptual cognition, I argue that a central core of Sellars’ account of nonconceptual sensory contents does not by itself fall afoul of the philosophical worries raised by the left-leaning Sellarsians, and that in fact it has significant merits in its own right. (shrink)

Fan culture has grown immensely over the past few years. People are constantly looking up to celebrities and personalities as role models for their fashion, identity, and success. During the stage of adolescence, it is normal for teenagers to admire well- known people and form fan attachments as part of their identity formation. However, this admiration of a specific media figure can be associated with one's personality, cognitive processes, and psychological well-being. Thus, the current study aims to investigate the correlation (...) between celebrity admiration and the self-esteem of 238 Filipino male teenagers. The research instruments, namely Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) were both utilized through google forms. Results have shown high scores on celebrity admiration and the normal range of self-esteem of the participants. Using Pearson’s r correlation coefficient, it was found that celebrity admiration and self-esteem of Filipino male teenagers have a significant relationship that exists in a negative direction. (shrink)

Are science and religion compatible when it comes to understanding cosmology (the origin of the universe), biology (the origin of life and of the human species), ethics, and the human mind (minds, brains, souls, and free will)? Do science and religion occupy non-overlapping magisteria? Is Intelligent Design a scientific theory? How do the various faith traditions view the relationship between science and religion? What, if any, are the limits of scientific explanation? What are the most important open questions, problems, or (...) challenges confronting the relationship between science and religion, and what are the prospects for progress? These and other questions are explored in Science and Religion: 5 Questions--a collection of thirty-three interviews based on 5 questions presented to some of the world's most influential and prominent philosophers, scientists, theologians, apologists, and atheists. Contributions by Simon Blackburn, Susan Blackmore, Sean Carroll, William Lane Craig, William Dembski, Daniel C. Dennett, George F.R. Ellis, Owen Flanagan, Owen Gingerich, Rebecca Newberger Goldstein, John F. Haught, Muzaffar Iqbal, Lawrence Krauss, Colin McGinn, Alister McGrath, Mary Midgley, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Timothy O'Connor, Massimo Pigliucci, John Polkinghorne, James Randi, Alex Rosenberg, Michael Ruse, Robert John Russell, John Searle, Michael Shermer, Victor J. Stenger, Robert Thurman, Michael Tooley, Charles Townes, Peter van Inwagen, Keith Ward, Rabbi David Wolpe. (shrink)

CARACTERÍSTICAS GERAIS DO GADO BOVINO -/- GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CATTLE BOVINE -/- CARACTERÍSTICAS GENERALES DEL GANADO BOVINO -/- 1 TAXONOMIA DOS BOVINOS -/- Consideramos, nesse primeiro tópico, a taxonomia (ordenação e classificação das espécies animais e vegetais, onde também pode-se encontrar a relação de familiaridade entre organismos distintos e/ou iguais, bem como sua evolução em diversos aspectos: físico, motor, locomoção, anatomia, etc.) dos bovinos. É levado em consideração os itens mais relevantes e mais estudados em Zootecnia, Biologia, Medicina Veterinária, etc. (...) Observe o quadro a seguir: -/- Phylum -/- Chordata/Cordados (com espinha dorsal) -/- Subphylum -/- Vertebrata/Vertebrados -/- Classe -/- Mammalia/Mamíferos (pelos na pele e glândulas mamárias desenvolvidas) -/- Subclasse -/- Theria -/- Infraclasse -/- Eutheria -/- Ordem -/- Artrioctyla/Artiodátilos (dois dedos; 3 e 4 falanges) -/- Subordem -/- Ruminantia/Ruminantes (sem incisivos superiores e quatro compartimentos) -/- Infraordem -/- Pecora -/- Família -/- Bovidae -/- Gênero -/- Bos -/- Espécie -/- Taurus -/- Subespécie -/- Taurus ou Indicus -/- 2 CARACTERÍSTICAS ANATÔMICAS, BIOLÓGICAS E ZOOTÉCNICAS -/- Apresento as principais características quanto ao regime alimentar, à anatomia estomacal que faz com que o animal seja denominado de ruminante e a dentição dos bovinos. Observe o quadro que se segue: -/- Estômago -/- Composto por quatro compartimentos, em ordem: Rúmen, Retículo, Omaso e Abomaso -/- Regime alimentício -/- Herbívoros (alimentam-se de gramíneas e forrageiras) -/- Dentição -/- Incompleta; ausência de pinças superiores e caninos -/- 3 PARÂMETROS PRODUTIVOS E REPRODUTIVOS IDEAIS -/- Na bovinocultura é comum trabalhar com parâmetros de produção e reprodução que devem ser respeitados e atingidos em uma propriedade, tanto para o produtor obtiver lucros e investir em seu plantel quanto visando à saúde e o bem-estar dos animais. Observe alguns padrões mais relevantes no quadro: -/- Lactância -/- 305 dias (10 meses, segundo a raça trabalhada) -/- Intervalo entre partos (IEP) -/- 11.5 – 12.5 meses e até 18 meses -/- Idade ao primeiro parto -/- 24 – 25 meses (raças europeias) -/- Dias abertos2 (período de serviço) -/- 50 – 150 dias -/- Serviços por concepção -/- 1 – 2 -/- % de concepção ao primeiro serviço -/- 60% -/- % de concepção ao segundo serviço -/- 80% -/- % de concepção ao terceiro serviço -/- 90% -/- % de vacas paridas por ano -/- 90% -/- Substituições -/- 18 – 30% -/- % máxima de mortalidade fetal -/- < 5% -/- % máxima de mortalidade em vacas -/- 2% -/- % de resíduos não-genéticos -/- Até 10% -/- 4 CARACTERÍSTICAS REPRODUTIVAS FISIOLÓGICAS DO MACHO (BOI) -/- Na bovinocultura, seja de corte ou leiteira, é necessário entender os animais quanto as suas principais características reprodutivas para que o produtor possa tomar as devidas providências na hora da estação de monta, no período de concepção, de gestação e pós-gestação visando uma melhor eficiência reprodutiva, bem como aos lucros provindos do rebanho. Observe o quadro abaixo: -/- Volume por ejaculação -/- 4 ml (variando entre 2 – 10 ml) -/- Número de espermatozoides -/- 4000 – 5000 milhões -/- Local da inseminação -/- Vagina da vaca -/- Tempo de chegada do sêmen ao oviduto -/- 2 – 13 minutos -/- Número de espermatozoides que chegam ao oviduto -/- 4200 - 27500 -/- Vida fértil do espermatozoide -/- 30 – 48 horas -/- Tempo da ejaculação -/- 1 segundo -/- Porcentagem ideal de motilidade -/- 75% -/- Porcentagem ideal de células normais -/- 95% -/- pH do sêmen -/- 6,7 – 6,9 (6,8 de média) -/- Idade à puberdade -/- 10 meses (podendo haver variações entre 6 – 10 meses) -/- Idade à primeira monta/uso do sêmen (inseminação artificial) -/- 18 – 24 meses -/- 5 CARACTERÍSTICAS REPRODUTIVAS FISIOLÓGICAS DA FÊMEA (VACA) -/- Se é importante atentar-se as informações acerca do sistema reprodutivo e andrológico do macho, com a fêmea esse cuidado e atenção deve ser ainda maior, uma vez que é ela que gerará o futuro do rebanho do produtor. É necessário atentar-se e dar ênfase à uma série de procedimentos pré e pós-parto. Observe o quadro a seguir: -/- Tipo de reprodução -/- Poliéstrico contínuo -/- Idade à puberdade -/- 7 – 18 meses (11 meses no gado europeu) -/- Maturidade sexual -/- 14 – 18 meses no gado europeu -/- Peso à puberdade -/- 300 kg (200 – 450 kg para a classe de grandes raças) -/- Duração do ciclo estral -/- 21 dias (18 – 24 de variação) -/- Momento da ovulação -/- 12 horas após a finalização do estro -/- Vida fértil do óvulo -/- 20 – 24 horas -/- Óvulos liberados -/- 1 – 2 (a poliovulação é possível) -/- Implantação3 do embrião -/- 40 dias -/- 6 ALTERAÇÕES OCORRIDAS DURANTE O PERÍODO DE GESTAÇÃO -/- É necessário dar ênfase à alguns aspectos relevantes na bovinocultura como a duração da gestação de uma vaca, em média, o total de crias que ela favorece ao produtor, etc. todos esses apontamentos deverão ser colocados em um documento para que se possa manter a qualidade e a boa produção e produtividade do plantel. Os aspectos no quadro abaixo são os mais primordiais para o conhecimento de leigos e até mesmo de trabalhadores da área veterinária e/ou zootécnica. Todos os dados obtidos são uma média, que foi obtida por meio de pesquisas e práticas com os animais. -/- Duração da gestação -/- 283 dias -/- Número de crias ao parto -/- 1 – 2 (sendo que 2 são em raras ocasiões) -/- Tipo de placenta -/- Epiteliocorial/Cotiledonária -/- Tempo de implantação -/- 30 – 40 dias após a cópula -/- Início do período seco4 -/- Aos 10 meses de lactação e aos 7 meses de gestação -/- Duração do período seco -/- 2 meses -/- 7 SINAIS PRÉVIOS AO PARTO -/- Antes do parto das vacas, é necessário que a atenção seja redobrada, temos que observar a anatomia exterior de certas compartições como a vagina, a mudança comportamental também deve ser observada, todos esses cuidados visam a sanidade tanto da vaca quanto do neonato. Por isso, é viável que todo e qualquer parto seja observado à distância seja pelo criador ou o trabalhador da propriedade, visando a possível ajuda no parto do animal caso o neonato passe por complicações na hora do nascimento. Um dos grandes vilões que aumentam o percentual de mortalidade de neonatos é as possíveis complicações na hora do nascimento, o animal pode ficar preso e morrer, como denomina-se de distorcia. Observe os fatores a serem levados em consideração no quadro abaixo. -/- Edema vulvar -/- Acúmulo anormal de muco na vagina -/- Distensão de ligamentos -/- O primeiro compartimento a se distender é a vagina para a facilitação da passagem do neonato -/- Edema abdominal e mamário -/- Acumulação de líquidos anormal no abdômen e no úbere -/- Gotejamento do colostro -/- 12 – 24 horas antes do parto -/- Inquietações -/- As vacas prontas pra parir ficam inquietas, hiperativas -/- Inapetência -/- As vacas cortam a alimentação por conta própria -/- Isolamento -/- As vacas que, normalmente andam em rebanho, se isolam em um determinado lugar para que possa parir -/- 8 CONSTANTES FISIOLÓGICAS -/- Essas constantes de temperatura, frequência cardíaca e respiratória além dos movimentos ruminais, servem de base para que o produtor mantenha seu rebanho sob controle veterinário e que, mediante quaisquer alterações nos dados apresentados, o produtor deverá comunicar ao médico veterinário da propriedade para que possam ser tomadas as devidas providências. Observe o quadro: -/- Temperatura -/- 37,5 – 38,5 °C (adultos) -/- 38,5 – 39,5 °C (jovens) -/- Frequência cardíaca -/- 40 – 80 batimentos/minuto (adultos) -/- 80 – 110 batimentos/minuto (jovens) -/- Frequência respiratória -/- 10 – 30 respirações/minuto (adultos) -/- 15 – 45 respirações/minuto (jovens) -/- Movimentos ruminais -/- 2 – 3 movimentos/2 minutos -/- 9 pH (POTENCIAL HIDROGENIÔNICO) DE ALGUMAS SECREÇÕES CORPORAIS -/- Fator importante para discernir os líquidos dos bovinos e dividi-los em ácidos ou básicos, isto é, se são ácidos ou alcalinos. O pH varia entre 0 – 14 e sua média é 7 (neutro), pHs acima de 7 são considerados alcalinos, porventura, pHs abaixo de 7 são considerados ácidos. Observe o quadro: -/- Leite -/- 6,5 – 7 (neutro) -/- Urina -/- 7,4 – 8,4 (alcalina) -/- Sangue -/- 7,3 – 7,5 (neutro) -/- Líquido ruminal -/- 5,5 – 7 (ácido) -/- Líquido abomasal -/- 2 – 3 (ácido) -/- Saliva -/- 7,9 – 8,5 (alcalina) -/- 10 VALORES SANGUÍNEOS NORMAIS DOS BOVINOS -/- Esses valores são utilizados como padrão principalmente para pesquisas no ramo da Ciência Animal. Todavia, são imprescindíveis para atentar-se à saúde e ao bem-estar dos animais, uma vez que, possíveis alterações anormais, ocasionam complicações futuras que, por sua vez, implicará em gastos ao produtor com assistência veterinária constante e medicamentos. Observe o padrão dos valores no quadro seus valores e, em notas de rodapé, as significações biológicas e médicas dos mesmos. -/- Hemoglobinas5 -/- 8,15 gramas/decilitro (g/dl) -/- Hematócritos6 -/- 24,5% (precisamente 24,46%) -/- Eritrócitos/hemácias/glóbulos vermelhos7 -/- 5 – 10 milhões/milímetro cúbico (mm3) -/- Reticulócitos8 -/- 0 -/- Plaquetas9 -/- 100 mm3 -/- Leucócitos/glóbulos brancos10 -/- 4000 – 12000 mm3 -/- Neutrófilos segmentados11 -/- 15 – 45% -/- Neutrófilos banda -/- 0 – 2% -/- Linfócitos12 -/- 45 – 75% -/- Monócitos13 -/- 2 – 7% -/- Eosinófilos14 -/- 2 – 20% -/- Basófilos15 -/- 0,2 -/- 11 QUÍMICA SANGUÍNEA DOS BOVINOS -/- Quantidade de micro e macronutrientes existentes no sangue, pode não parecer importante, mas esses padrões quando, porventura, esses números alterem-se implicará em patologias interiores e exteriores necessitando-se, assim, de mão de obra especializada, ou seja, um médico veterinário. Observe o quadro a seguir: -/- pH sanguíneo (venoso) -/- 7,4 (precisamente 7,38) -/- Proteínas plasmáticas -/- 6,8 g/dl -/- Cálcio (Ca) -/- 9 – 11 miligramas/decilitro (mg/dl) -/- Fósforo (P) -/- 5 – 9 mg/dl -/- Magnésio (Mg) -/- 2 – 3 mg/dl -/- Sódio (Na) -/- 132 – 245 miliequivalentes/litro (mEq/L) -/- Potássio (K) -/- 4,1 – 5,1 mEq/L -/- Glicose -/- 50 – 70 mg/dl -/- Nitrogênio (N) urético no sangue -/- 5 – 20% -/- Creatinina16 -/- 1,5 mg/dl -/- Cobre (Cu) -/- 0,7 – 1,3 partes por milhão (ppm) -/- Chumbo (Pb) -/- 0 – 0,15 ppm -/- Fibrinogênio17 -/- 300 – 800 mg/dl -/- Bilirrubina18 total -/- 0,1 – 1,6 mg/dl -/- Bilirrubina livre -/- 0 – 1 mg/dl -/- Bilirrubina conjugada -/- 0,6 mg/dl -/- Ferro (Fe) -/- 100 – 200 mg/dl -/- TGO (transaminase glutâmico oxalacética)19 -/- 100 – 50 UI -/- TGP (transaminase glutâmico pirúvica) -/- 3 – 15 UI -/- FA (fosfatase alcalina) -/- 30 – 50 UI -/- CPK (creatinofosfoquinase)20 -/- 30 – 50 UI -/- LDH (lactato desidrogenase)21 -/- 300 – 600 UI -/- GGT (gama glutamil transferase) -/- 4,9 – 26 UI -/- HCO (bicarbonato) -/- 28 mEq/L -/- Nota: Atualmente, a medicação da TGO está caindo em desuso, em seu lugar mede-se AST (aspartato aminotransferase). Da mesma forma, utiliza-se a ALT (alanina aminotransferase) no lugar da TGP. -/- 12 CONSTANTES FISIOLÓGICAS DO APARELHO DIGESTIVO -/- Esses padrões servem para que o produtor possa ter um alicerce da quantidade de água e de alimentos (feno, silagem, palhas, etc.) que o animal deverá consumir para que possa produzir de forma eficiente e gerar lucros futuros para a propriedade. Observe o quadro abaixo: -/- Consumo de alimentos à livre acesso -/- 3% do peso vivo (PV) – (feno de ótima qualidade) -/- 2,2% do PV – (silagem) -/- 1% do PV – (palhas) -/- Consumo de água -/- 10% do PV dividido em 4 períodos: -/- 3,6 – 4,3 litros de água/kg de matéria seca (MS) -/- 50 – 80 litros de água/dia (alimentos secos) -/- 24 – 40 litros de água/dia (alimentos verdes) -/- 14 – 16 % do PV (mais de 5 litros/L de leite) -/- pH ideal da água deverá estar entre 6 – 9. -/- 13 CARACTERÍSTICAS DA RUMINAÇÃO -/- Os bovinos são animais de produção peculiares, isto é, é um dos animais com uma capacidade completamente enorme para um criador, estamos falando do fato de digerir alimentos fibrosos, especialmente os volumosos, e transformá-los em carne, leite, etc. Isso ocorre porque nos bovinos, como em caprinos, ovinos, etc. há a presença do rúmen em seu aparelho estomaco-digestivo. A ruminação consiste, basicamente, na regurgitação do alimento semi-digerido, o alimento primeiramente é consumido e vai para o primeiro compartimento, o rúmen, lá às bactérias e os protozoários começam a desagregação das fibras existentes no alimento, depois o alimento volta a boca do animal em que o mesmo agrega saliva e o mastiga novamente para ir ao retículo. Observe as características peculiares da ruminação no quadro: -/- Início e regularização (1° arroto) -/- 2 – 3 semanas de idade -/- Início (depois do alimento ingerido) -/- 5 – 15 horas após a ingestão -/- Número de períodos da ruminação -/- 4 – 24 períodos/dia (segundo a quantidade da frequência cardíaca (FC) e do tamanho das partículas -/- Total de regurgitações -/- 15 – 20 -/- Volume ruminado -/- 40 – 60 kg ao dia -/- Duração por período de ruminação -/- 10 – 60 minutos cada uma -/- Número dos bolos alimentares regurgitados -/- 360 - 790 -/- Peso dos bolos alimentares ruminados -/- 80 – 120 g -/- Movimentos mastigatórios e tempo de mastigação por bolo alimentar -/- 40 – 70 movimentos e o tempo de 45 – 60 segundos -/- Tempo da ruminação -/- 7 horas (variação conforme raça: 3 – 8 horas) -/- 14 COR NORMAL DAS FEZES -/- Na bovinocultura, de corte ou leite, é sumamente imprescindível atentar-se à todos os tipos de detalhes no animal, por exemplo, se está associado ao grupo, se está alimentando-se regularmente e normalmente, se está ruminando de forma normal e, até mesmo, a cor e a consistência das fezes exoneradas. Esse fator de coloração e consistência implica na sanidade do animal. Observe o quadro elaborado, segundo quantidades de clorofila, bílis, tipo de alimentação, etc. -/- Bezerro (período de amamentação) -/- Cor amarelada para o cinza -/- Bovino adulto (ruminante) -/- Verde escuro (pastagens) -/- Amarronzado (estábulo) -/- Amarelo pardo (engorda com concentrado/grãos) -/- Consistência: pastosa -/- Odor: ligeiramente desagradável -/- 15 CARACTERÍSTICAS DAS ESTRUTURAS DIGESTIVAS/COMPARTIMENTOS -/- Nos bovinos há a presença de 4 aparelhos estomacais, sendo o último, o abomaso, o estômago verdadeiro, isto é, o estômago químico do animal, antes disso, há a presença do rúmen que é o compartimento que faz dos animais ruminantes peculiares na pecuária, o retículo e o omaso. Observe o quadro abaixo: -/- Rúmen (Pança) -/- Proporção ocupada ante os compartimentos -/- 80% do lado esquerdo da cavidade abdominal -/- Capacidade -/- 200 – 250 litros ou 135 kg de material alimentício (adultos de raças pesadas) -/- pH do líquido -/- 5,5 – 7 -/- Movimentos ruminais -/- 2 – 3 movimentos/2 min. -/- Cor normal do líquido ruminal -/- Geralmente verde acinzentado -/- Consistência -/- Ligeiramente viscosa -/- Odor -/- Aromático e pouco repulsivo -/- Proporção bacteriana -/- 1 x 109 a 1 x 1010 /ml -/- Proporção protozoária -/- 1 x 102 a 1 x 106 /ml -/- Função -/- Digestão de celulose, hemicelulose e amido. -/- Fermentação de açúcar a acetato, propionato e butirato. Oxidação e absorção de acetato, propionato e butirato. -/- Assimilação de açúcares, minerais e nitrogênio no corpo microbiano. Bem como a absorção de outros íons. Produção de gases, ácidos graxos voláteis e massa microbiana -/- Retículo (bonete, coifa, barrete, crespina) -/- Tamanho -/- 5% de todo compartimento estomacal -/- Projeção -/- 6° à 8° costelas esquerdas -/- Função -/- Regurgitação na -/- ruminação e eructação. Também participa na fermentação -/- Omaso (saltério, filho, folhoso) -/- Tamanho -/- 7% de todo o compartimento -/- Projeção -/- 7° à 9° costelas esquerdas -/- Função -/- O omaso permite a reciclagem da água e de alguns minerais como o fósforo e o sódio que retornam ao rúmen pela saliva. Serve como objeto de transição entre as distintas fermentações do rúmen e do retículo. Grande capacidade de absorção de água, sódio, fósforo e ácidos graxos residuais e voláteis -/- Abomaso (coagulador, coalheira, estômago verdadeiro) -/- Tamanho -/- 7 – 9% de todo o compartimento -/- Projeção -/- Sobre o piso da cavidade ligeiramente à direita da linha média, desde o apêndice xifoide até o umbigo -/- Função -/- Digestão ácida. Secreção de enzimas digestivas e do ácido clorídrico (HCl) que mata os microrganismos. Digere alimentos não fermentados no rúmen (algumas proteínas e lipídeos). Digestão peptídica de microrganismos. -/- REFERENCIAL TEÓRICO -/- JARDIM, V. R. Bovinocultura. 1ª ed. Campinas: Instituto Campineiro de Ensino Agrícola, 1973. -/- _____________.; JARDIM, L. M. B. F.; TORRES, A. di P. Manual de Zootecnia: raças que interessam ao Brasil. 1ª ed. São Paulo: Agronômica Ceres, 1982. -/- ROSENBERGER, G. et al. Exame clínico dos bovinos. 1ª ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 1993. (shrink)

Przedmowa Problematyka związana z zależnościami przyczynowymi, ich modelowaniem i odkrywa¬niem, po długiej nieobecności w filozofii i metodologii nauk, budzi współcześnie duże zainteresowanie. Wiąże się to przede wszystkim z dynamicznym rozwojem, zwłaszcza od lat 1990., technik obli¬czeniowych. Wypracowane w tym czasie sieci bayesowskie uznaje się za matematyczny język przyczynowości. Pozwalają one na daleko idącą auto¬matyzację wnioskowań, co jest także zachętą do podjęcia prób algorytmiza¬cji odkrywania przyczyn. Na potrzeby badań naukowych, które pozwalają na przeprowadzenie eksperymentu z randomizacją, standardowe metody ustalania zależności przyczynowych (...) opracowano na początku XX wieku. Zupełnie inaczej sprawa przedstawia się w przypadku badań nieeksperymentalnych, gdzie podobne rozwiązania pozostają kwestią przyszłości. Zadaniem tej książki jest podanie warunków, które powinny być spełnione przez te rozwiązania, oraz sformułowanie proceduralnego kryterium zależności przy¬czynowych jako szczegółowej realizacji tych warunków. Pociąga ono waż¬kie konsekwencje dla filozofii i metodologii nauk, które ujawnia – podany w Części II – zarys me-todolo¬gii proceduralnej. W literaturze przedmiotu brakuje w miarę wszechstronnego i systema¬tycznego omówie¬nia najnowszych filozoficznych i metodologicznych dys¬kusji na temat przy¬czynowości, co niech będzie wytłumaczeniem, dlaczego w niektórych punktach obecnej książki szczegółowo referuję trudno dos¬tępne teksty źró¬dłowe. Przymiotnik „proceduralny” używam tu w znaczeniu węższym niż Huw Price (w którego pracach właściwszy byłby termin „kryterialny”) dla podkre¬ślenia – zgodnie z łacińskim źródłosłowem procedo – że dla ustalenia przy¬czyny niezbędne jest podjęcie przez uczonych określonych interakcji z ba¬daną rzeczywistością. Zalążki zamysłu prezentowanego w tej książce przedstawiłem podczas warsztatów filozoficznych „Philosophy and Probability” w roku 2002, zor¬ganizowanych przez Instytut Filozofii Uniwersytetu w Konstancji. Wdzięczny jestem uczestnikom tych warsztatów za uwagi, a przede wszyst¬kim następującym osobom: Luc Bovens, Brandon Fitelson, Alan Hájek, Stephan Hartmann oraz Jon Williamson. Podczas międzynarodowej konferencji „Analytical Pragmatism”, zorgani¬zowanej w Lublinie w roku 2003 przez Wydział Filo¬zofii Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, odniosłem swoją koncepcję do prac Nancy Cartwright. Szczególnie inspirujący okazał się komentarz Huw Price’a do mojego referatu i przeprowadzona z nim dysku¬sja. Ujęcie koncepcji metodologii proceduralnej na szerszym tle współ-czes¬nego nurtu empirystycznego w filozofii nauki przedstawiłem w roku 2004 podczas konferencji „5th Quadrennial Fellows Conference”, zorgani¬zowanej przez Instytut Filozofii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz Centrum Filozofii Nauki w Pittsburghu. Szczególnie pomocne w dalszych moich pra¬cach były uwagi Jamesa Bogena, Janet Kourany, Jamesa Lennoxa, Johna Nortona, Thomasa Bonka, Jana Woleńskiego i Johna Worralla, za które wyra¬żam swoją wdzięczność. Korpus książki powstał podczas mojego stażu w Centrum Filozofii Nauki w Pittsburghu, który odbyłem jako stypendysta Fundacji na Rzecz Nauki Polskiej w roku akademickim 2004-2005. Uczestniczyłem w tym czasie w życiu naukowym Centrum i w pracach badawczych zespołu z Instytutu Filozofii Uniwersytetu Carnegie-Mellon w Pittsburghu kierowanego przez Clarka Glymoura. Na jego ręce składam podziękowanie za wiele po¬mocnych uwag do moich wy¬stąpień oraz tekstów i za dyskusje przede wszystkim z nim samym i z jego najbliższymi współpracownikami: Peterem Spirtesem oraz Richardem Scheinesem, a także pozostałymi członkami tego zes¬połu, doktorantami i uczestnikami seminarium badawczego „Causality in the Social Sciences”. Za wieloletnie wsparcie, wielopłaszczyznowe inspiracje towarzyszące pi¬saniu tej książki, a także liczne pomocne uwagi do jej wcześniejszych wersji dziękuję przede wszystkim Księdzu Profesorowi Andrzejowi Bronkowi oraz Księdzu Profesorowi Józefowi Herbutowi, współprowadzącemu seminarium doktorskie w Katedrze Metodologii Nauk Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubel¬skiego im. Jana Pawła II, jak również pozostałym uczestnikom tego semina¬rium. Dziękuję mojej Żonie, dr Annie Kawalec za wiele wysiłku włożonego w ulepszenie redakcji – językowej i merytorycznej – obecnej książki. Książkę tę można czytać na kilka sposobów. Czytelnikom zainteresowa¬nym przede wszystkim prowadzeniem badań empirycznych polecałbym rozpoczęcie od Rozdziału 2. i kontynuację pozostałych rozdziałów Części I, a następnie Dodatków. Czytelnikom zainteresowanym problemami filozo¬fii i metodologii nauk polecałbym rozpoczęcie lektury książki od Części II i uzupełniającą lekturę Rozdziału 2., a następnie Wprowadzenia i Zakończenia. Czytelnikom mniej zainteresowanym zagadnieniami teoretycznymi pole¬całbym zapoznanie się z fascynującymi dziejami odkrycia przyczyn cholery przez Johna Snowa, które rekonstruuję w Rozdziale 1. W dalszej części nato¬miast polecałbym przejście do Wprowadzenia i Zakończenia, które w mniej specjalistyczny sposób przybliżają proponowane tu rozstrzygnięcia. Tekst książki nie był dotąd publikowany. Wyjątkiem są pewne fragmenty Rozdziału 8. oraz 9., które w zmienionej postaci ukazały się w Rocznikach Filozoficznych (Kawalec 2004). -/- Lublin, luty 2006 r. (shrink)

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Vol. 5, number 1, Autumn 1991, pp. 79-87. R.M. Nugayev. -/- The fundamental laws of physics can tell the truth. -/- Abstract. Nancy Cartwright’s arguments in favour of phenomenological laws and against fundamental ones are discussed. Her criticisms of the standard cjvering-law account are extended using Vyacheslav Stepin’s analysis of the structure of fundamental theories. It is argued that Cartwright’s thesis 9that the laws of physics lie) is too radical to accept. A (...) model of theory change is proposed which demonstrates how the fundamental laws of physics can, in fact, be confronted with experience. -/- . (shrink)

In this eleventh book of scilogs – called in-turns and out-turns –, one may find new and old questions and solutions, referring mostly to topics on Neutrosophy, but also Multispace, with miscellaneous addition of topics on Physics, Mathematics, or Sociology – email messages to research colleagues, or replies, notes about authors, articles, or books, spontaneous ideas, and so on. -/- Exchanging ideas with Prem Kumar Singh, Feng Liu, Nicolae Bălașa, Jimmy Quellet, Minodora Rușchița, Frank Gelli, A. R. Vătuiu, Victor Christianto, (...) Vladimir I. Rogozhin, Robert Neil Boyd, Akira Kanda, Stefan Spaarmann, Oliver Consa, Yabin Shao, Junle Zhuo, Nivetha Martin, Said Broumi, Jean Dezert, Erick González, Tomasz Witczak, B. De Baets, I. Couso, D. Dubois, L. Good, Mihaela Colhon, Atiqe Ur Rahman, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Ihsan, Edeline Nancy, Shawkat Alkhazaleh, Shazia Rana, Vasantha Kandasamy, Santanu Acharjee, Mohamed Al-Shmrani, Parimala Manie, Mehmet Unver, Murat Olgun, Adel Aleidhri, Akira Kanda, Ilanthenral Kandasamy, Mircea Zărnescu, R. Tayebi Khorami, Arsham Borumand Saeid, Maisam Jdid, M. Abobala, Riad Hamido, Rafael Rojas, Esmaeil Zarei, Faisal Khan, Rouzbeh Abbassi, Adel Al-Odhari, Henry Garrett, Ackbar Rezaei, Saeid Jafari, Karthika Muthusamy, Harish Garg, Huda E. Khalid, Gonca D. Güngör, Muslim A. Noah Zainal, Fakhry Asad Agusfrianto, Madeleine Al-Tahan, Mariam Hariri, Yudi Mahatma, Masoud Ghods, Marco Brigliadori, Luis Enrique Aponte Pérez, Amr Mohammed, M. Aslam (in order of reference in the book). (shrink)

Martin E. Rosenberg -/- The Gift of Silence: Towards an Anthropology of Jazz Improvisation as Neuro-Resistance. -/- ABSTRACT: -/- This essay addresses how the complex processes that occur during jazz improvisation enact behaviors that resemble the logic of gift exchange first described by Marcel Mauss. It is possible to bring to bear structural, sociological, political economical, deconstructive or even ethical approaches to what constitutes gift exchange during the performance of jazz. Yet, I would like to shift from focusing this analysis (...) of jazz improvisation with reference to the language of music as symbolic action (which all of these approaches require), to grounding improvisation in embodied and distributed cognition, the performance of which begins with a ritual gift of silence. By silence, I refer to the embodied, yet shared pure duration as felt synchrony within an individual performer, that extends to the members of an ensemble. Thus, I refer to both aesthetic and micro-political implications of embodied, yet also distributed musical cognition in real time. -/- For jazz musicians, embodied silence becomes the initial condition for processes of cognitive bifurcation. For it is bifurcation that attracts us to jazz in the first place. Here I expand my previous work establishing similarities in the behavior of bifurcating systems in physical and cognitive sciences to the unfolding of ambiguity in real time during improvisation with respect to polyphony, polytonality and polyrhythms in the history of jazz from Charlie Parker to Ornette Coleman. We can therefore re-conceptualize jazz improvisation as a subversive antidote for processes of determination identified in a sub-discipline of cultural studies called “cognitive capitalism.” By examining silence from this anthropological perspective, we can conceive of jazz performance as a ritualized resistance to top-down cognitive control immanent with social and digital networks. The ritual enactment that is jazz improvisation points towards an aesthetics of bifurcation that is simultaneously a micro-politics of neuro-resistance. In other words, I argue that freedom of thought requires freedom from thought as an initial condition. -/- Yet, I emphasize the empirical rather than mystical grounds to this gift of silence. The valorization of silence by jazz musicians is not simply etiquette, an ethics of reciprocity for performers exchanging “riffs,” but an initial condition that jazz performers (and, I would argue, listeners) experience in their bodies, thus linking embodied cognition to a collective field of cultural production that emerges from each embodied individual, and yet also pervades the ensemble in ways reminiscent of feedback loops in complex systems. The recent and remarkable research on music and the brain has demonstrated that it is now possible to describe jazz improvisation as possessing both embodied and distributed cognitive properties. The emergent neuronal ensemble behavior within the individual that is visible in jazz improvisors, discovered by the neuroscientists at Johns Hopkins led by Charles Limb, bears striking resemblance to the interactive behaviors of the jazz ensemble itself. Thus, it is by recourse to recent research by myself and others into the cognitive neuroscience of music generally, and jazz improvisation specifically, that the empirical grounds for an anthropology of neuro-resistance become visible. (shrink)

This work describes the main basic concepts of the astrological work of Ptolemy, through an analysis of his Tetrabiblos. Comparing his ideas to those of other authors of his time, it is shown that Ptolemy does not present stoic influences, as claimed by some historians. The conclusion of the article is that the basis of Ptolemy's astrology was Aristotle's physics.

We are living at the dawn of the first truly scientific picture of the universe-as-a-whole, yet people are still dragging along prescientific ideas about God that cannot be true and are even meaningless in the universe we now know we live in. This makes it impossible to have a coherent big picture of the modern world that includes God. But we don't have to accept an impossible God or else no God. We can have a real God if we redefine (...) God in light of knowledge no one ever had before. The key question is, “Could anything actually exist in the scientific universe that is worthy of the name, God?” My answer is yes: God is an “emergent phenomenon,” as real as the global economy or the government or the worldwide web, which are all emergent phenomena. But God arose from something deeper: the complex interactions of all humanity's aspirations. An emerging God has enormous implications. (shrink)

Who, over the age of 20, hasn’t experienced a serendipitous event: unexpected information that yields some unintended but potential value later on? Sitting next to a stranger on a plane who becomes a business partner? Stumbling onto an article in a journal or newspaper that helps tackle a nagging problem? Creating a new drug by accident?

Since its publication, the Psychopathic Personality Inventory and its revision (Lilien- feld & Andrews, 1996; Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005) have become increasingly popular such that it is now among the most frequently used self-report inventories for the assessment of psychopathy. The current meta-analysis examined the relations between the two PPI factors (factor 1: Fearless Dominance; factor 2: Self-Centered Impulsivity), as well as their relations with other validated measures of psychopathy, internalizing and externalizing forms of psychopathology, general personality traits, and antisocial (...) personality disorder symptoms. Across 61 samples reported in 49 publications, we found support for the convergent and criterion validity of both PPI factor 2 and the PPI total score. Much weaker validation was found for PPI factor 1, which manifested limited convergent validity and a pattern of correlations with central criterion variables that was inconsistent with many conceptualizations of psychopathy. (shrink)

A cognitive ethnography of how bioengineering scientists create innovative modeling methods. In this first full-scale, long-term cognitive ethnography by a philosopher of science, Nancy J. Nersessian offers an account of how scientists at the interdisciplinary frontiers of bioengineering create novel problem-solving methods. Bioengineering scientists model complex dynamical biological systems using concepts, methods, materials, and other resources drawn primarily from engineering. They aim to understand these systems sufficiently to control or intervene in them. What Nersessian examines here is how cutting-edge (...) bioengineering scientists integrate the cognitive, social, material, and cultural dimensions of practice. Her findings and conclusions have broad implications for researchers in philosophy, science studies, cognitive science, and interdisciplinary studies, as well as scientists, educators, policy makers, and funding agencies. In studying the epistemic practices of scientists, Nersessian pushes the boundaries of the philosophy of science and cognitive science into areas not ventured before. She recounts a decades-long, wide-ranging, and richly detailed investigation of the innovative interdisciplinary modeling practices of bioengineering researchers in four university laboratories. She argues and demonstrates that the methods of cognitive ethnography and qualitative data analysis, placed in the framework of distributed cognition, provide the tools for a philosophical analysis of how scientific discoveries arise from complex systems in which the cognitive, social, material, and cultural dimensions of problem-solving are integrated into the epistemic practices of scientists. Specifically, she looks at how interdisciplinary environments shape problem-solving. Although Nersessian’s case material is drawn from the bioengineering sciences, her analytic framework and methodological approach are directly applicable to scientific research in a broader, more general sense, as well. (shrink)

We call for a new philosophical conception of models in physics. Some standard conceptions take models to be useful approximations to theorems, that are the chief means to test theories. Hence the heuristics of model building is dictated by the requirements and practice of theory-testing. In this paper we argue that a theory-driven view of models can not account for common procedures used by scientists to model phenomena. We illustrate this thesis with a case study: the construction of one of (...) the first comprehensive model of superconductivity by London brothers in 1934. Instead of theory-driven view of models, we suggest a phenomenologically-driven one. (shrink)

In this article, we propose the Fair Priority Model for COVID-19 vaccine distribution, and emphasize three fundamental values we believe should be considered when distributing a COVID-19 vaccine among countries: Benefiting people and limiting harm, prioritizing the disadvantaged, and equal moral concern for all individuals. The Priority Model addresses these values by focusing on mitigating three types of harms caused by COVID-19: death and permanent organ damage, indirect health consequences, such as health care system strain and stress, as well as (...) economic destruction. It proposes proceeding in three phases: the first addresses premature death, the second long-term health issues and economic harms, and the third aims to contain viral transmission fully and restore pre-pandemic activity. -/- To those who may deem an ethical framework irrelevant because of the belief that many countries will pursue "vaccine nationalism," we argue such a framework still has broad relevance. Reasonable national partiality would permit countries to focus on vaccine distribution within their borders up until the rate of transmission is below 1, at which point there would not be sufficient vaccine-preventable harm to justify retaining a vaccine. When a government reaches the limit of national partiality, it should release vaccines for other countries. -/- We also argue against two other recent proposals. Distributing a vaccine proportional to a country's population mistakenly assumes that equality requires treating differently situated countries identically. Prioritizing countries according to the number of front-line health care workers, the proportion of the population over 65, and the number of people with comorbidities within each country may exacerbate disadvantage and end up giving the vaccine in large part to wealthy nations. (shrink)

‘The problem with simulations is that they are doomed to succeed.’ So runs a common criticism of simulations—that they can be used to ‘prove’ anything and are thus of little or no scientific value. While this particular objection represents a minority view, especially among those who work with simulations in a scientific context, it raises a difficult question: what standards should we use to differentiate a simulation that fails from one that succeeds? In this paper we build on a structural (...) analysis of simulation developed in previous work to provide an evaluative account of the variety of ways in which simulations do fail. We expand the structural analysis in terms of the relationship between a simulation and its real-world target emphasizing the important role of aspects intended to correspond and also those specifically intended not to correspond to reality. The result is an outline both of the ways in which simulations can fail and the scientific importance of those various forms of failure. (shrink)

The “problem of intentionality” from the vantage point of a representational understanding of mind is explaining what thoughts and beliefs are and how they guide behaviour. From an anti-representationalist perspective, on the other hand, on which cognition itself is taken to be a kind of action, intentionality is a capacity to engage in behaviour that is meaningfully directed toward or about some situation. That these are not in fact competing insights is obscured by the representational/anti-representational framing of the debate. This (...) paper begins the work of shifting the conversation in two ways: (1) by arguing that it is the commitment to internal representations, not the acknowledgement of a role for representation per se, that is problematic; and, (2) by describing an alternative, externalist, representational approach that draws on extended, embodied, enactive insights. (shrink)

Concerns about the risks of unmitigated greenhouse gas emissions are growing. At the same time, confidence that international policy agreements will succeed in considerably lowering anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions is declining. Perhaps as a result, various geoengineering solutions are gaining attention and credibility as a way to manage climate change. Serious consideration is currently being given to proposals to cool the planet through solar-radiation management. Here we analyze how the unique and nontrivial risks of geoengineering strategies pose fundamental questions at (...) the interface between science and ethics. To illustrate the importance of integrated ethical and scientific analysis, we define key open questions and outline a coupled scientific-ethical research agenda to analyze solar-radiation management geoengineering proposals. We identify nine key fields of coupled research including whether solar-radiation management can be tested, how quickly learning could occur, normative decisions embedded in how different climate trajectories are valued, and justice issues regarding distribution of the harms and benefits of geoengineering. To ensure that ethical analyses are coupled with scientific analyses of this form of geoengineering, we advocate that funding agencies recognize the essential nature of this coupled research by establishing an Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications program for solar-radiation management. (shrink)

Is simulation some new kind of science? We argue that instead simulation fits smoothly into existing scientific practice, but does so in several importantly different ways. Simulations in general, and computer simulations in particular, ought to be understood as techniques which, like many scientific techniques, can be employed in the service of various and diverse epistemic goals. We focus our attentions on the way in which simulations can function as (i) explanatory and (ii) predictive tools. We argue that a wide (...) variety of simulations, both computational and physical, are best conceived in terms of a set of common features: initial or input conditions, a mechanism or set of rules, and a set of results or output conditions. Studying simulations in these terms yields a new understanding of their character as well as a body of normative recommendations for the care and feeding of scientific simulations. (shrink)

WE AIM HERE to outline a theory of evidence for use. More specifically we lay foundations for a guide for the use of evidence in predicting policy effectiveness in situ, a more comprehensive guide than current standard offerings, such as the Maryland rules in criminology, the weight of evidence scheme of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), or the US ‘What Works Clearinghouse’. The guide itself is meant to be well-grounded but at the same time to give practicable (...) advice, that is, advice that can be used by policy-makers not expert in the natural and social sciences, assuming they are well-intentioned and have a reasonable but limited amount of time and resources available for searching out evidence and deliberating. (shrink)

The paper develops a positive account of the representational capacity of cognitive systems: simple, associationist learning mechanisms and an architecture that supports bootstrapping are sufficient conditions for symbol tool use. In terms of the debates within the philosophy of mind, this paper offers a plausibility account of representation externalism, an alternative to the reductive, computational/representational models of intentionality that still play a leading role in the field. Although the central theme here is representation, methodologically this view complements embodied, enactivist approaches (...) to studying cognition. (shrink)

All parties involved in researching, developing, manufacturing, and distributing COVID-19 vaccines need guidance on their ethical obligations. We focus on pharmaceutical companies' obligations because their capacities to research, develop, manufacture, and distribute vaccines make them uniquely placed for stemming the pandemic. We argue that an ethical approach to COVID-19 vaccine production and distribution should satisfy four uncontroversial principles: optimising vaccine production, including development, testing, and manufacturing; fair distribution; sustainability; and accountability. All parties' obligations should be coordinated and mutually consistent. For (...) instance, companies should not be obligated to provide host countries with additional booster shots at the expense of fulfilling bilateral contracts with countries in which there are surges. Finally, any satisfactory approach should include mechanisms for assurance that all parties are honouring their obligations. This assurance enables countries, pharmaceutical companies, global organisations, and others to verify compliance with the chosen approach and protect ethically compliant stakeholders from being unfairly exploited by unethical behaviour of others. (shrink)

Societies of the East are often contrasted with those of the West in their stances toward technology. This paper explores these perceived differences in the context of international ethics guidance for artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics. Japan serves as an example of the East, while Europe and North America serve as examples of the West. The paper’s principal aim is to demonstrate that Western values predominate in international ethics guidance and that Japanese values serve as a much-needed corrective. We recommend (...) a hybrid approach that is more inclusive and truly ‘international’. Following an introduction, the paper examines distinct stances toward robots that emerged in the West and Japan, respectively, during the aftermath of the Second World War, reflecting history and popular culture, socio-economic conditions, and religious worldviews. It shows how international ethics guidelines reflect these disparate stances, drawing on a 2019 scoping review that examined 84 international AI ethics documents. These documents are heavily skewed toward precautionary values associated with the West and cite the optimistic values associated with Japan less frequently. Drawing insights from Japan’s so-called ‘moonshot goals’, the paper fleshes out Japanese values in greater detail and shows how to incorporate them more effectively in international ethics guidelines for AI and robotics. (shrink)

This letter addresses the editorial decision to publish the article, “Research on group differences in intelligence: A defense of free inquiry” (Cofnas, 2020). Our letter points out several critical problems with Cofnas's article, which we believe should have either disqualified the manuscript upon submission or been addressed during the review process and resulted in substantial revisions.

Online education has become an essential component of education. Thus, several factors, such as the student’s learning strategy and motivation, generally contribute to their academic success. This study investigates the relationship between learning strategies, motivation, and online learning environment among 150 first-year college students. Employing correlational design, the statistical findings of the study reveal that the r coefficient of 0.59 indicates a moderate positive correlation between the variables. The p-value of 0.00, which is less than 0.05, leads to the decision (...) to reject the null hypothesis. Hence, a significant relationship exists between learning strategies, motivation, and the online learning environment. (shrink)

Scientific research is a highly complex and creative domain of human activity. In addition to its intrinsic value, understanding scientific thinking provides insight into the creative potential of human psychological capacities, as they are imbedded in rich social, material, and cultural environments. I discuss findings from my own investigations using two forms of qualitative research suited to studying scientific thinking as situated in context: cognitive-historical and cognitive-ethnographic.

This chapter focuses on a novel class of models used in frontier research in the bioengineering sciences – in vitro simulation models – that provide the basis for biological experimentation. These bioengineered models are hybrid constructions, composed of living tissues or cells and engineered materials. Specifically, it discusses the processes through which in vitro models were built, experimented with, and justified in a tissue engineering lab. It examines processes of design, construction, experimentation, evaluation, and redesign of in vitro simulation models, (...) in general, as instances of building the source analogy (as distinguished from retrieving an analogy), which figures prominently in creative frontier scientific research. Building the analogical source is a bootstrapping process, which furthers the articulation, as well as the solution of the problem. -/- . (shrink)

This paper replies to a commentary by John-Stewart Gordon on our paper, “The Moral Standing of Social Robots: Untapped Insights from Africa.” In the original paper, we set forth an African relational view of personhood and show its implica- tions for the moral standing of social robots. This reply clarifies our position and answers three objections. The objections concern (1) the ethical significance of intelligence, (2) the meaning of ‘pro-social,’ and (3) the justification for prioritizing humans over pro-social robots.

Sentimentalist aesthetic theories, broadly construed, posit that emotions play a fundamental role in aesthetic experiences. Jesse Prinz has recently proposed a reductionistic version of sentimentalist aesthetics, suggesting that it is the discrete feeling of wonder that makes an experience aesthetic. In this contribution, we draw on Prinz’s proposal in order to outline a novel version of a sentimentalist theory. Contrasting Prinz’s focus on a single emotion, we argue that an aesthetic experience is rudimentarily composed of a plurality of emotions. We (...) acknowledge and discuss significant problems that follow from such a theory, arguing that a pluralist version of sentimentalism is nonetheless the soundest position within sentimentalist aesthetics. (shrink)

Hubert Dreyfus has argued recently that the frame problem, discussion of which has fallen out of favour in the AI community, is still a deal breaker for the majority of AI projects, despite the fact that the logical version of it has been solved. (Shanahan 1997, Thielscher 1998). Dreyfus thinks that the frame problem will disappear only once we abandon the Cartesian foundations from which it stems and adopt, instead, a thoroughly Heideggerian model of cognition, in particular one that does (...) not appeal to representations. I argue that Dreyfus is too hasty in his condemnation of all representational views; the argument he provides licenses only a rejection of disembodied models of cognition. In casting his net too broadly, Dreyfus circumscribes the cognitive playing field so closely that one is left wondering how his Heideggerian alternative could ever provide a foundation explanatorily robust enough for a theory of cognition. As a consequence, he dilutes the force of his legitimate conclusion, that disembodied cognitive models will not work, and this conclusion needs to be heard. By disentangling the ideas of embodiment and representation, at least with respect to Dreyfus‘ frame problem argument, the real locus of the general polemic between traditional computational/representational cognitive science and the more recent embodied approaches is revealed. From this, I hope that productive debate will ensue. (shrink)

In this lyrical meditation on listening, Jean-Luc Nancy examines sound in relation to the human body. How is listening different from hearing? What does listening entail? How does what is heard differ from what is seen? Can philosophy even address listening, écouter, as opposed to entendre, which means both hearing and understanding? Unlike the visual arts, sound produces effects that persist long after it has stopped. The body, Nancy says, is itself like an echo chamber, responding to music (...) by inner vibrations as well as outer attentiveness. Since “the ear has no eyelid” (Quignard), sound cannot be blocked out or ignored: our whole being is involved in listening, just as it is involved in interpreting what it hears. The mystery of music and of its effects on the listener is subtly examined. Nancy’s skill as a philosopher is to bring the reader companionably along with him as he examines these fresh and vital questions; by the end of the book the reader feels as if listening very carefully to a person talking quietly, close to the ear. (shrink)

Machine learning systems (MLS) that model low-level processes are the cornerstones of current AI systems. These ‘indirect’ learners are good at classifying kinds that are distinguished solely by their manifest physical properties. But the more a kind is a function of spatio-temporally extended properties — words, situation-types, social norms — the less likely an MLS will be able to track it. Systems that can interact with objects at the individual level, on the other hand, and that can sustain this interaction, (...) can learn responses to increasingly abstract properties, including representational ones. This representational capacity, arguably the mark of intelligence, then, is not available to current MLS’s. (shrink)

In the recent twenty-year retrospective issue of Animal Behavior and Cognition, Povinelli and Henley (2020) argue that a host of comparative studies into “complex cognition” suffer, fatally, from a theoretical confusion. To rectify the problem, they issue the following challenge: alongside specifications of the higher-order capacity to be tested, provide hypotheses of the mechanism(s) necessary to implement it. They spearhead this effort with a discussion of how the Relational Reinterpretation Hypothesis (RRH) provides just such an account. In the first part (...) of the paper, I argue that RRH is neither necessary nor sufficient to explain the second-order behavior in question. In part two, I describe an alternative hypothesis, externalism, that does sufficiently account for it. Further, it opens new avenues of comparative research. (shrink)

We present a simple example that disproves the universality principle. Unlike previous counter-examples to computational universality, it does not rely on extraneous phenomena, such as the availability of input variables that are time varying, computational complexity that changes with time or order of execution, physical variables that interact with each other, uncertain deadlines, or mathematical conditions among the variables that must be obeyed throughout the computation. In the most basic case of the new example, all that is used is a (...) single pre-existing global variable whose value is modified by the computation itself. In addition, our example offers a new dimension for separating the computable from the uncomputable, while illustrating the power of parallelism in computation. (shrink)

The current orthodoxy in cognitive science, what I describe as a commitment to deep representationalism, faces intractable problems. If we take these objections seriously, and I will argue that we should, there are two possible responses: 1. We are mistaken that representation is the locus of our cognitive capacities — we manage to be the successful cognitive agents in some other, non-representational, way; or, 2. Our representational capacities do give us critical cognitive advantages, but they are not fundamental to us (...) qua human beings. As Andy Clark has convincingly argued, antirepresentationalism, option one, is explanatorily weak. Consequently, I will argue, we need to take the second option seriously. In the first half of the paper I rehearse the problems with the current representational view and in the second half of the paper I defend and give a positive sketch of a two-systems view of cognition – a non-representational perceptual system coupled with a representational language-dependent one – and look at some consequences of the view. (shrink)

The computational metaphor for mind is still the central guiding idea in cognitive science despite many insightful and well-founded rejections of it. There is good reason for its staying power: when we are at our cognitive best, we reason about our world with our concepts. But the challengers are right, I argue, in insisting that no reductive account of that capacity is forthcoming. Here I describe an externalist account that grounds representations in organism-level engagement with its environment, not in its (...) neural activity. (shrink)

A topic of special importance when it comes to responsibility and implicit bias is responsibility for knowledge. Are there strategies for becoming more responsible and respectful knowers? How might we work together, not just as individuals but members of collectives, to reduce the negative effects of bias on what we see and believe, as well as the wrongs associated with epistemic injustice? To explore these questions, Chapter 9 introduces the concept of epistemic responsibility, a set of practices developed through the (...) cultivation of basic epistemic virtues, such as open-mindedness, epistemic humility, and diligence that help knowers seek information about themselves, others, and the world. (shrink)

The prescriptive force of methodological rules rests, I argue, on the acceptance of scientific theories; that of the most general methodological rules rests on theories in the philosophy of science, which differ from theories in the several sciences only in generality and abstraction. I illustrate these claims by reference to methodological disputes in social science and among philosophers of science. My conclusions substantiate those of Laudan except that I argue for the existence of transtheoretical goals common to all scientists and (...) concrete enough actually to have bearing on methodology. And I argue that Laudan is committed to such goals himself, willy nilly. (shrink)

The term psychopathy refers to a personality disorder associated with callous personality traits and antisocial behaviors. Throughout its research history, psychopathy has frequently been described as a peculiar form of moral blindness, engendering a narrative about a patient stereotype incapable of taking a genuine moral perspective, similar to a blind person who is deprived of proper visual perceptions. However, recent empirical research has shown that clinically diagnosed psychopaths are morally more fit than initially thought, and the blindness-analogy now comes across (...) as largely misleading. In this contribution, the moral-blindness analogy is explored in an attempt to qualify anew its relevance in psychopathy theory and research. It is demonstrated that there are indeed theoretically relevant parallels to be drawn between blindness and psychopathy, parallels that are especially illuminating when accounting for the potential symptomatology, dimensionality, and etiological nature of the disorder. (shrink)